http://www.readourpapers.com/index.php Free School Papers - Posting and sharing en ReadOurpapers.com http://www.readourpapers.com/history/industrial-revolution.html The industrial revolution began shortly after the French revolution, which played a key role in toppling the Old Regime. By the 1830s, other countries such as Belgium, France and Germany had begun their industrialization of their cities. It provided work to peasants, and provided a very profitable return ratio for its investors. Britain’s rank in the world increased as a result of the success it gained from the industrial revolution in cities, from iron creation, ship-building and textile-weaving, Britain had all the ingredients to become a dominant power. Henry Ford, the inventor of the assembly line, said “There is but one rule for the industrialist, and that is: Make the highest quality goods possible at the lowest cost possible, paying the highest wages possible.” Henry Ford was the founder of the Ford Automobile Company, who, with mass production, brought his Model T to the public at a lower cost than would have been possible.
Not all lives during the industrial revolution were glamorous, conditions were especially horrible for the poor labor class. Their living conditions possessed inadequate sanitation systems and were simply not big enough for the amount of people living there. Before the industrial revolution, many of the workers lived in villages or farms, surrounded by friends, family, and plenty of land. The social impact of the mechanization of Britain was staggering. Quality of life dropped drastically when the industrial revolution came about, bringing immense pollution the likes of which had never been imagined. New materials and means of production meant pollution that was new to the sky and lungs of the population. As this was occurring, drastic economic inequalities also ensued. The rich got richer, while the poor got poorer, and the middle class all but disappeared. Child labor was an advantage to the wealthy investors, young children working in factories and coal mines meant paying lower wages. Youth under the age of eighteen were the driving labor force behind the industrial revolution, 40-45% of the workers were youth. The Factory Act of 1833 was the first child labor law in England, enforcing that children under the age of nine were not allowed to work, and that children under the age of eighteen could only work during the day, a maximum of twelve hours. In the pre-industrial age, before so many new jobs were available, women and children would never be asked to leave the home to go and work, but now the entire family was working side by side in factories.
Advancements in technology continued with the expansion of railroads across the country, allowing steam engines to export more finished products and import more raw materials. The “Spinning Jenny” was another new machine that allowed for increased productivity, invented by James Hargreaves. This device helped reduce the amount of labor needed to produce yarn. This device helped boost production per person, allowing each worker to produce eight spools at once. By the early 1800s, technology was booming, there were canals for ships to pass through, and railroad track for trains to transport goods. James Brindley designed canals to provide transportation to anywhere in the city, while lowering the cost of transportation, transit time was also reduced, increasing profits even more. The next big advancement was in 1829, when George Stephenson created the train he nicknamed “The Rocket,” which was the fastest and largest train to date. Also in the early 1800s, a man named Ned Lud began a revolt against all of this new technology, speaking out against the mechanization of the work force by smashing and destroying machines in the factories to throw a wrench in productivity. He and his followers, mainly English textile workers, became known as the ‘Luddites.” Their message spread across the country and was met with lukewarm support, their main concern being to prevent these new technological advances from taking the jobs that were rightfully theirs.
While technology was where the biggest changes were occurring, science and the way people viewed the world was altered as well. Notable men of this revolutionary era are Charles Darwin, Einstein, Sigmund Freud and Adam Smith. Sigmund Freud brought to life his idea on the ID, ego and superego and changed people’s thoughts about themselves, while Adam Smith wrote ‘The wealth of nations” discussing his opinion that the government should interfere in economic relations as little as possible. He supported the industrialization of Europe and believed that left to its own devices, the economy would work itself out, becoming more fair and balanced than the inequality that plagued the current system. Perhaps the most controversial of all was Charles Darwin. Introducing his theory of evolution had the country in an uproar, and he was attacked by members of the church for being a blasphemer. While many still disagree with his words, his theories are still taught in public schools across America today.
While the benefits of the industrial revolution may not outweigh the cost of suffering it brought with it in some people’s eyes, it is undeniable that without the advancements made in this era, many of the luxuries that are enjoyed today would not exist. The rapid change that the civilized world underwent at this time has not been matched since, and never has so much progress been made in so short a time. Britain went from being mostly rural farmland to a booming metropolis filled with smokestacks and factories, a tradeoff that has both a positive and a negative side. All members of society were affected, life as it was known changed overnight. As a whole, the economy was booming, industry rose skyward, and many had an income that allowed them to purchase items they had never imagined.




Bibliography

Encyclopedia of British history. “1833 Factory Act” Date of access: 12/12/06 URL:

Kagan, Ozment, and Frank M. Turner. The Western Heritage. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc, 2006

Oxford American Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 2004.

Perry, Peden, Theodore H. Von Laue. Sources of the Western Tradition. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006
Think Exist. “Henry Ford Quotes” Date of Access: 12/12/06 URL: ]]> History]]> Fri, 15 Dec 2006 13:49:06 -0500 http://www.readourpapers.com/history/king-leopold-8217-s-ghost.html The inhabitants of the Congo Free State were not seen as humans in the eyes of Leopold but rather a free source of labor, far less valuable than the rubber and ivory they in turn produced for his benefit. The large numbers of the population surely would have run out had Leopold been left to his own devices, but their seemingly endless supply only made matters worse for the natives. Such large numbers allowed for quick and easy replacement, should a death or maiming be needed to send a message. A countless number of innocent people were killed at the hand of Leopold, his extreme violence and ruthlessness wreaking havoc without being questioned. Due to its remote location, news of the situation’s reality did not reach Europe of the U.S until about 1900, and it was an additional eight years until Leopold’s maniacal reign was put to an end. After being annexed as a colony of Belgium, the violence and terror had finally ended.
It is estimated that upwards of thirty million Congolese inhabitants were killed during the course of King Leopold’s reign, but the true number of deaths that occurred at his hand remain in question to this day. Depending on the source, numbers range from a low of three million to a high of thirty, a staggering difference. The secrecy that Leopold was able to uphold is truly astonishing, over ten years passing before any questions were raised from the outside. Threats, violence, and pure disbelief are what allowed the murdering to continue, the blood of the indigenous people spilling like rain as Leopold’s wealth continued growing. Leopold claimed that the violence and casualties were at the hands of the natives, that his purpose there was “the work of moral and material regeneration, and we must do this among a population whose degeneration in its inherited conditions it is difficult to measure. The many horrors and atrocities which disgrace humanity give way little by little before our intervention”. Though the true horrors and atrocities were yet to come.
Those employed by Leopold did not travel to the continent in order to be ruthless murderers, but this fact was soon put behind them, as killing became their living. An army known as the “Force Publique” was perhaps the most brutal group of all. Their purpose was to ensure that specific quotas were met, quotas set for ivory and rubber that soon included human lives. If a quota was not met, human hands became a sort of currency to make up for the deficit, to show that it was not in vain. The officers themselves were “white agents of the State,” but also included black soldiers, many of whom “were cannibals from the most fierce tribes from upper Congo. Others had been kidnapped during the raids on villages in their childhood and brought to Catholic missions, when they received a military training in conditions close to slavery”. Those who worked for Leopold either did not ask questions or were threatened if they did so.
The one person who did ask questions was a man named Edmund Dene Morel, a part-time journalist and shipping clerk, hardly a Sherlock Holmes. With his pushing, the British House of Commons passed a resolution that “called on the British government to conduct an in inquiry into alleged violations of the Berlin Agreement”. With this move, the public eye became fiercely trained on Leopold and his every move. Morel’s first move was to call attention to the Congo situation using his journalistic abilities, first publishing articles and later books detailing what little was known. The Congo Reform Association was formed and gained support as far away as the United States. Eventually success was achieved, the accusations against Leopold discovered to be true, at which point the Congo was annexed to Belgium with the Belgium Parliament holding sovereignty. Morel had been one of the few to really take an interest in the situation and the people of the Congo, his efforts being a large reason why things ended sooner rather than later.
The end of Leopold and the Congo Free State can be attributed to several factors. Morel’s investigative reporting played a very important hand in spreading public awareness of the situation’s reality, without which it is unknown how long things would have continued the way they were. Economic factors also played a role, the success that Leopold had in the rubber industry sparked outside interest, and competition from rival British firms in countries such as Latin America and Southeast Asia began to challenge the Congo’s monopoly. This in turn increased exploitative measures, but the “increasingly unsustainable harvesting methods” , caused further problems. In the end, it is impossible to think that Leopold could have continued his ways, between the magnitude of the crimes he was committing and the forces he was competing against, things were bound to snap.

The reality that this even happened at all is a statement of the horrors that man can get away with. While this is not the only instance in which countless of innocent lives were taken for an unjustifiable reason, it is astonishing how much has been ignored. The Holocaust is another event that springs instantly to mind, but it is no secret what happened here, while history textbooks go into great detail about Auschwitz and the maniacal acts of Hitler, Leopold is barely glossed over. This injustice should not be stood for, the power and corruption that men like Leopold and Hitler got away with should not be forgotten, less it happen again. It is impossible to name outright why the genocide of the Congo has not been as widely discussed as that of the Jews, they are no less worthy of remembering than one another. As Hochschild wrote, “the Congo offers a striking example of the politics of forgetting. Leopold and the Belgian colonial officials who followed him went to extraordinary lengths to try to erase potentially incriminating evidence from the historical records”. There were no documents to account for the number of deaths that occurred, and no documents to record the number of people alive before Leopold came to terrorize the area. A census of the population was not taken until 1924, but those who were witness to the events do not deny the magnitude of what happened, and neither should we now.












Bibliography

“King Leopold II of Belgium.” More or Less: Heroes and Killers of the 20th Century.
Page created on 19 August 2003. Updated 20 September 2003. Accessed 10
December 2006. < http://www.moreorless.au.com/killers/leopold.html#backg >

Robinson, B.A.“Mass Crimes Against Humanity and Genocides: The Congo Free state
Genocide: circ 1895 to 1912.” Religious Tolerance.org. Ontario Consultants on Religious
Tolerance. Originally written: 31 May 2005. Accessed 10 December 2006.
< http://www.religioustolerance.org/genocong.htm>

Hochchild, Adam. King Leopold's Ghost: A story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998.]]> History]]> Fri, 15 Dec 2006 13:48:22 -0500 http://www.readourpapers.com/history/slave-narratives.html The majority of slave owners did horrible things to their slaves, not only tearing families apart and causing emotional damage, but abusing them physically as well, from using whips as punishment to depriving them of essential liberties that most of us take for granted. Slaves were forced into terrible conditions, living in rags, being fed in troughs; and were seen as inferior even to dogs. Whereas dogs were kept in the house and treated like people, slaves were kept in shacks, cabins, basements, anything as long as it was far away from the house, unnoticeable to guests. These living conditions meant dirt floors, no heating or cooling, and no chance to learn to read or educate themselves. Slaves were not allowed money for themselves, and any money they did have or earn was immediately taken from them by their owners. Ironically though, slaves usually took the name of their owner, not having “proper” Christian names of their own, as claimed in a narrative by Richard Toler.
Richard Toler’s father was a slave, given a name by his owner, Henry Toler. These names gave the slave only one identity and that was as property. Henry Toler had a cabin that was located far behind the giant house that he lived in; a cabin that housed his slaves who worked the 500 acres of land Mr. Toler owned. Henry Toler was a big farmer in Virginia; and his slaves were treated fairly well compared to many others. When Richard was sick, he was given medicine, if he was really sick, the owners would get a doctor to look at him. He was not whipped; he had told his owners that if he were to get whipped he would kill them. And though Richard himself was never beaten, he still witnessed many horrible things that happened on the farm.
Richard states he knew of three or four slaves that were killed by the whip, as well as many who were mauled by tracking dogs. Most slaves were forbidden from owning anything, even books. Richard recalls Henry Toler’s sons had joined the Ku Klux Klan, and he witnessed the sons whipping a woman strapped to a barrel, then pouring salt into her raw wounds. White supremacy was practiced and seen as the normal way of the world. After the Emancipation Act, Richard went to night school to learn to read and write, and while he had already grown by this time, he believed he need to educate himself. Richard had become a blacksmith while living on the farm, and was a blacksmith for 36 years, later learning to be a musician. He once saw President Lincoln and asked to be set free, and later Lincoln set the slaves free, which Richard was grateful for. Slave narratives not only include details of their hardships but hopefulness as well. Even in the darkest of times they speak of spiritual, physical, emotional, and intellectual findings laid in their path to freedom.]]> History]]> Mon, 23 Oct 2006 02:18:03 -0400 http://www.readourpapers.com/history/flash-cards-for-history.html The Chain of being- Western medieval conception of the order of the universe which was a very hierarchical system. God – Angels – Humans – Beasts – fish – plants – rocks. Or Holy, animal, vegetable, mineral.
Giolamo Savonarola- Was an Italian Dominican priest and leader of Florence from 1494 until his execution 1498. He was for religious reformation, anti-renaissance, book burning, destruction of art. He was against pop Alexander VI, sometimes seen as the precursor of martin Luther, he was roman catholic. He spoke out on the corruption of clergy. Was not a theologian, Christian life was that of displaying good, not carrying out displays of excessive pomp and ceremonies. When Charles VIII of France invaded France, Medici was overthrown and Savonarola became leader of the city. He set up modern democratic republic. He did huge bonfires and destroyed paintings. Bonfires of the Vanities. In 1497 youth rioted and over ruled him and went back to gambling publicly. On may 23rd 1498 he was executed for heresy and religious error by pope Alexander VI.
Marsilio Ficino-One of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian renaissance. He was the first translator of Plato’s complete extant works into Latin. Had a Florentine academy to attempt to revive Plato’s school, had influence on the direction and tenor of the Italian renaissance and development of European philosophy.
Academy During the Florentine renaissance, Cosimo De’Medici re-established it in 1439. was cool with marsilio ficino. Cosimo was inspired by the council of Florence of Gemistos plethon who was a Plato reborn from the Florentine intellectuals. The academies were training schools for artists – from antiques and paintings.
Baldassare Castiglione Renaissance author who wrote eclogue tirsi. Diplomat. Was an ambassador in Rome for mantuan dukes. the Book of the courtier was one of his most famous books published in Venice. The book defined the ideal renaissance gentleman.
The great chain of being – or scala naturae, is a medieval view of the structure of the world. It is characterized by a strict system of hierarchy, starting at the bottom with the most basic element, earth/rock, and working its way up to the highest point, God. This view remained unchallenged until the time of the Copernician and Darwinian revolution, which led to the Renaissance. The order of things is unchangeable, it being impossible to move above or below other elements on the ladder. Man is the only possible exception, being both mortal and spirit, with the struggle between these two sides being morality. Mortal desires drag a person down, whereas the spirit will lift one closer to God.
Plenitude – a principle that states “everything that can happen will happen.” This philosophic principle was first discussed by Arthur Lovejoy, pointing to Aristotle who said no possibilities which remain eternally possible will go unrealized. From Christian Theology and beyond, there were a variety of opinions, some holding: that God had the power to reject the principle by choosing what to create and what not to create, the best of all possible worlds will contain all possibilities, and that nature will become as complete as it possibly can be.
Scholasticism – a method of learning taught by medieval universities (110-1500). Originally began to settle the differences between ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology. Scholasticism is not a philosophy or theology, but a method for learning that emphasizes logical reasoning. Its main purpose was to find the answer to a question or resolve a contradiction. While it is most known in medieval theology, it was eventually applied to classical philosophy and other fields of study.
The Italian renaissance – a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that began in Tuscany, from the end of the 1500s to 1600, it marked the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the late 15th century as invasions and wars brought turmoil. The word renaissance means “rebirth,” this period is best known for a retuned interest in the culture of antiquity following the Dark Ages. While the changes were significant, most of the effects were in the upper classes, and the vast majority of the population did not experience any changes.
Dante Alighieri – born June 1, 1265, was an Italian Florentine poet. His greatest work “The Divine Comedy,” is considered the greatest literary statement produced in Europe during the Middle Ages. He was a leader of dolce stil novo (the sweet new style). He faught in the battle of campaldino with Florentine Guelf knoights against Arezzo Ghibellines. He was sent into death, which was a form of death. He always beleieved that he would be invited back to forence with honorable terms. He had many problems with pop Boniface VIII since Boniface wanted military occupation of Florence. He lost power with the whie Guelfs, which were taken over by the black guelfs. The divine comedy is dante’s journey through hell, purgatory, and paradise.
The Spanish inquisition – was established in 1478 by Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms. The Spanish Monarchy directly controlled the inquisition, and remained until 1834, when it was abolished under the reign of Isabel II.
Petrarch
Was an Italian scholar, poet and a humanist, him and dante are considered the fathers of the renaissance. His father Ser Petracco was exiled from Florence in 1302 like dante by the black Guelphs. He was crowned poet laureate in rome, first since antiquity. He was credited on creating the concept of the Dark Ages. He is best known for the Canzoniere and the Trionfi. Petrarch, more than any other man, is credited with inspiring the humanist philosophy which led to the intellectual flowering of the Renaissance. He believed in the immense moral and practical value of the study of ancient history and literature - that is, the study of human thought and action. While humanism later became associated with secularism, Petrarch was a devout Christian and did not see a conflict between realizing humanity's potential and having religious faith. A highly introspective I politician and thinker Leonardo Bruni argued for the active life, or "civic humanism." The result was that a surprising number of political, military, and religious leaders during the Renaissance were inculcated with the notion that their pursuit of personal glory should be grounded in classical example and philosophical contemplation.
----he was called the father of humanism. He inspired through his love for classical learning. He demonstrates self consciousness of the modern outlook. He was devoted to Christianity.
Leonardo Bruni
Leading humanist, historian. In the reading of “History of His Own Times in Italy’ he expresses the humanist love for ancient Greek literature and language. buni outlines the basic course of studies that the humanists recommend as the best preparation for a life of wisdom and virtue.
Battle of lepanto  naval battle between Christian allies – Venice, the pope, and Spain, and the Ottoman Turks. The Ottomans were trying to attain the Venetian island of Cyprus, but failed four hours into the fight, as the Christian forces won the battle and captured thousands of men. The battle itself was very significant, heavily impacting European morale, as seen in painting by Titian, Tintoretto, and Veronese. Unfortunately, Venice surrendered Cyprus to the Turks two years later.
The thirty years war  was fought between 1618 and 1648, though its impact continued for more than 300 years after its end. The war was fought on what is now know as German soil, involving most of the major European countries. What began as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics, the power struggles between the Habsburg dynasty and others was also a key factor. The Peace of Augstburg signed in 1555 stated that German Princes were allowed to choose which religion they wanted for their realms, deciding between Lutheranism and Catholicism. With the various political and economic tensions growing between many of the powerful European nations in the early 1600s, adding the spread of Calvinism to this made matters worse. Famine and disease sparked by the war were devastating, with the total civilian casualties estimated at 20% of the entire German population. The war came to a close with the Peace of Westphalia, though the effects continued for hundreds of years after.
peter the great of Russia  born on the 9th of June 1972 and died Februrary 8th 1725, Peter the Great ruled Russia from May 7th 1682 until his death. Peter believed in a policy of “Westernization” and expansion, transforming the Muscovite Russian into a major European power. Following the Great Northern War between Russian and Sweden, Peter’s last years were spent on further reforms in Russia. He also reformed the government of the Orthodox Church, created a new order of precedence, replacing the old system of determining precedence by birth with one determined by service to the Emperor. After peace was made with Sweden, he was declared “Emperor of All Russia,” the title of “Emperor” making other European monarchs nervous. His imperial title was recognized by Poland, Prussia, and Sweden, but the other European countries saw this as a threat, that his title of Emperor might cause him to claim authority over them. With Peter’s death followed his wife Catherine’s succession, for he had failed to choose his successor before his died of bladder problems in 1725.
charles I of England  born November 19th 1600 and died January 30th 1649, Charles was the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1625 until his death. His struggle for power with the Parliament of England was watched by all, and his support of the Divine Right of Kings led many to fear that he was attempting to gain absolute power. Many of his actions produced widespread opposition, especially levying taxes without parliament’s approval. His reign was full of religious conflicts, his choosing a Catholic wife causing problems as well. His downfall was aided by his attempts to force religious reforms upon Scotland, leading to a war that weakened England and helped quicken his downfall. The end of Charle’s rule was marked by the English Civil War, with him against the forces of Parliament, who stood up against his attempts to increase his power, and the Puritans, who disagreed with his religious policies and “catholic sympathy”. The civil war ended not only in his defeat, but his trial, conviction and execution. With this act the monarchy was overthrown and a commonwealth put in its place, unfortunately turning into a military dictatorship as increased dependence upon the army arose.
James I of england/james VI, Scotland  born june 1566 and died 1625, James was the King of England, King of Scots, and King of Ireland, and the first to hold the title of “King of Great Britain.” He first ruled in Scotland until 1567 and after the “Union of Crowns” reigned in England and Ireland from 1603 until his death. James was the first monarch of England from the House of Stuart, following Elizabeth I, the last Tudor monarch. While James was a successful ruler in Scotland, the opposite was true of his rule over England. He could not control a hostile Parliament and the House of Commons’ refusal to place higher taxes seriously hurt royal finances. His actions set the stage for the English Civil War, the reasons being his use of political absolutism, mismanagement of the kingdom’s funds and his bringing up of unpopular favorites. Despite all of this, the governments of England and Scotland were relatively stable during James’ own life. He is considered one of the most intellectual and learned persons ever to sit on the English or Scottish thrones, and under him much of the cultural flourishing of Elizabethan England continued- and science, literature and art, grew by great amounts during his rule.
archbishop william laud  born 1573 and died 1645, William was the Archbishop of Canterbury and a firm supporter of King Charles I of England, who he encouraged to believe in divine right. Several reasons led to his beheading during the English Civil War, particularly his support for Charles, persecution of opposing views, and belief in absolute monarchy.
The northern renaissance --
The renaissance in northern Europe, Europe outside of Italy. Before 1500, the Italian renaissance had no influence outside Italy. After 1500 Renaissance spread around Europe, but Late Gothic influences remained present until the arrival of Baroque. King Francis I importuned Italian art and built grand palaces at great expense beginning the France renaissance. Tons of art, age of discovery, invention of caravel, a ship, which created good trade with other countries.]]> History]]> Wed, 11 Oct 2006 03:12:54 -0400