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Mihesuah, Devon A. "Indigenizing the Academy." Wicazo Sa Review (Spring 2006): 127-137.]]> Anthropology]]> Sat, 01 Mar 2008 19:01:44 -0500 http://www.readourpapers.com/anthropology/path-to-native-education.html Opinion -
Students continuing education after graduation from a tribal college tend to stay around the area, which I think is important to increase the educational levels in the community bringing a better brighter future.]]> Anthropology]]> Sat, 01 Mar 2008 19:01:06 -0500 http://www.readourpapers.com/anthropology/nas-1-study-guide.html 2. Civil rights act – 1964 – hired more minorities guidance councelors – blacks faught to get noticed
3. Indian studies – few get tenure
4. Fed $ - education – academecic content not there
5. Ethnic communities –
6. Drop out rate – real causativefactor – no academic background upon which Indian students can draw when they reach college. – don’t k now how to write. Its all about inadequate preparation. – staff needs to remedial programs.
7. Inadequate preparation. - take time working on remedial programs. Or lower standards.
8. Pressure to rush into college – not repared or inclined to.
9. Transitional programs – additional training in reading and writing English. – ge the skills to succeed in college. Haskell –
10. History and culture – programs help so they know their culture and can deal with identiy problems. Creating an Indian community on campus.
11. Scholarships and fellowships – basis of need – and academic potential. Title IV and graduate fellowships - provide funds to allow stuend to go to school and finish – students should maintain a higher standard.
12. Define goals. – encompassing all relevant knowledge and information concerning the relatinpship between American Indians an the rest of the world. Creating a relationship between fed gov and the rest of the world. – religions. Art. Music. Etc. with goals staff can turn attention to making substance of IS and not worry about procedures for mmainting a program.
13. Capable people – oonly produce a handful of good capable bright people then to do hundreds of barely educated Indian students.
Indian communities – must work with universities to make it agood contribution.
14. --- Annette jaimes
15. Russell thorton – future of IS is open and can blend into other disciplines. Or it could emerge as a discipline, unique and different.
16. American Indian studies – fuly interdisciplinary academic field – conceptual alternative to – eurocentrism in herent in the present intellecture status quo
17. Multi-cultural pluralism – contemporary higher education in the US. AIS practitioners –
18. Vine deloria jr- no one ever believed that racial minorities might have their own view point.
19. Conceptual difficulties – bound up by nature of its origins and historical setting within a number of private land grand colleges. – civilize the Indian, perspectives of European tradition at the expense of the indigenous wodlview. \
20. Thorton created colonial indoctrination – tendency within AIS which may be summed up as little more than a concentration on teaching and service activities. Not on scholarly functions of characteristic of other disciplines.
21. Glorified vo-tech – notion of AIS consitituting – through swhich students pass, punching ciurriculum tickets. En route to meeting social service career requirements is not without merit. Lack of substance
22. Indian students – lack of substance non Indian enroll –
23. Distinct and separate nations – just another minority – rather than as the distinct and separate nation implied by their treay relationships with the us gov.
24. EOP – 1960s and 70s, facilitate greater minority – access to retention in higher education.
25. Ward Churchill – the compus role of the eops. Only providing non academic services like counceling.
26. 1988 – rudderless discipoline – isolated both winithin academic and its own cultureal roots.
27. Academic curriculum – monolitch – curriculum. Focus on European conceptual modes ‘natural formation of knowledge. European is not jus the subject.. it is the object.. subject matter of investigation.
28. Developing AIS – intellectual subordination to the academic mother country of Europe derived processes and standards.
29. Educational imperialism – predominate conceptual mode – knowledge dvided into discrete content areas arranged in linear structure.
30. Subordination – quality integreity and legitimacy have been measured since its inception. – must conform to conceptual standards and methods which are patently in opposition to native American srealities and raison d’etre.
31. Conceptual standards and methods –
32. Endogenous – resell thorton describes the discipline as endogenous-. There is a steady growing practitioners have begun to come to grips of conceptual problemsd . missed directions.
33. Autonomous Indian tradition of scholarship and intellectualism - Can eventually become autonomous Indian tradition.
34. Basis for development – seventeen sates joined previously mentioned private institutions offerening university level ais propgrams. – nine American universities field programs of sufficient scope and depth were designated American Indian studies research centers.
35. 17 states – they all joined in trying to build programs – university level programs
36. AIS directory (9) –
37. U of A – working model for replication at other instiatutions – in the 70s by vine deloria jr - even different contcentrations – success of its pariticpants in breakin with the shoestring profile of ais at most institutions assembling an impressive rost of good members.
38. UCB - - comsest with generalized PHD in ethnic studies – AIS is a concentration.
39. UCLA – post doc fellowships in ais are also offered.
40. Journals – many covering AIS – northweast Indian studies at cornell, American Indian quarterly at uc b. wicazo sa review at eastern Washington uni. – combine to make broadly focused periodicals – the journal of ethnic studies.
41. Presses – no development of book publishing – ais centers at ucla and unm have tried. – uni of Oklahoma, Nebraska and Minnesota.
42. Quality ais/native scholars – matured into second generation – first gen was vine deloria, scott momaday, alphonso Ortiz, Robert Thomas, Russell thorton, buffalohead. – senior statesmen. – leslie maromon silko, ortize, Mohawk, Kenny. 80s as well. Churchill , laduke,
43. Consolidation of a disciplinary vision. – anchor the field firmly upon its own conceptual foundations working with traditions values and perspectives of its own indigenous constituency rather than the attitudinal syndrome of ruling class officials.
44. Own internal standards and criteria. – ais is assessed by its standards rather than by evaluative methods of mainstream fields.
45. Native American cconceptual mode. – to define goals as encompassing all the relevant knowledge and information concerning th erelationship between American Indians and the rest of the world. – speres of knowledge – all components or categories are mutually and perpetually informing – wheel or hoop circle of life to keeping oral traditions of peoples.
46. Indian understanding – of all possible things – without firm grasp of spiritual principles governing Indian life. . Indian philosophy cannot be appreocated without a solid appreciate of all these elements.
47. Crossroads - - future directions – by mid 90s – more or less fully assimilated into academic mainstream, reduced to a pseudoillecturual vehicle maintained for purposes of providing the appearance of ethnic diversity on campus and to exend indianvalidation.
48. Native American constituencies – inidna law resource center, national Indian youth council, law resource center, national Indian youth council, world council of indigenous peoples,. Acquire international forums. Participation in the UN – treatment of Indians in Americas – broaden the horizons of those involved.
49. Fourth or host – world composed of a multitude of distinct peoples ranging from the Indians or north and south American – Persia.. saharah.. even Europe. Sitting on top of the host world.
50. Indigenous commonality – certain things in common. Relating to the habitat which are non disruptive they allow for perpertual coexistence of humans and other organice life.
a. Fact that virtually all of the peoples in question have been conquered colonized and ulitmatly encapsulated within one or another modern nation state. – historical experiences of indigenous peoples the world over during the past five centures show in many ways overwhelming commonality
51. Inherent rights – deloria – inherent rights of each American Indian tribe to enjoy status of sovereign nations – all indigen people hold such rights.
52. Dialectical methodology – comprehensive and dialectically interactive. Compelling speech by George m frederickson’s thesis. . understand sthe Bantustans in south Africa without first studing the process of American Indian reservations were established in the us.
a. Demands the revitalized exploration of everything from traditional indigenous economis to architreture agriculture social structure kinship systems gov forsms historiography and spiritual traditions. – autonomous discipline.
53. Indigenous studies – ais is framed inside of. Shown signs of life. Ais content in a global model. aAIS must live up to its life
54. ----william Willard - -------------
55. Russell throton – definition of American Indian studies and it s evolution in academia . endogenous consideration of traditional and contemporary Indian socities located in the estern hemisphere.
56. Churchchill and hill
a. Reviewed thorton the perils of American Indian studies as one component of university ethnic or minority studies.
i. Fashionable for uni to develop minoritie studies programs to help with social issues. And are effective in there. But in educational – transparent deotin to posture and gloss at the expense of scholarily conent.
57. Programmatic flaws – concept of minority studies as a separate discipline creates aura of isolation around the dept thus established. – impossible to establish curriculr body to accompany a academic unit intended as minority studies dept. – minority studies programs are drastically understaffed. Considering the nature of the tasks assigned to them.
58. Terry Wilson – autonomous discipline – means of coordinating casual and scholarly concerns surrounding the study of AI and offer integrated research and teaching program from a uniquely AI perspective.
59. Vine deloria – similar viewpoit – IS should define their goals as encompoassing all relevant knowledge and information concerning relationships between AI and the world.
60. Patrick morris – agreement – native studies continuing – utilizing academic disciplines and methodologies to search and identify issues in the native community.
61. Annette jaimes – that AIS in the 90s should move away from seeking academic disciplinary status and move toward involvement in cglobal context of the experience of all indig people.
62. Arnold krupat – recognition of native American lilterature which would go beyond any o ht eother viewpoints to an incorporation of indig literature in American literary canon. – illuminate and interact with the terts of the dominat euroamerican culture.
63. Karl Kroeber - another directioni for literary componetnt of AIS – independent field – now has writers – dozen authors and its it.
64. Robert allen warrior – scholars need to respect integrity and continuity of American indina literature – historical and contemporary – it’s a reisstance to colonialism and to compare to other iterature of resistances.
65. Roge buffalohead - ethnic studies – Indian studies have done the spade work – communities and made people get known – keep up the activism. –
66. Kidwell - - admin and organizational problems - at berk – difficulty in finding major scholars who had advanced degrees and program directores that had faculty status – formulate research plans for alleviation of social problems – maintain student support for its indina students.
67. Uc berk - ‘just another rminority’ – develop curricula – get research plans – maintain student support.
68. Criticisms – not a legit area of concern - lack of distinct methodology that emplys unieue abstract concepts. – should be for any social science –
69. ----- Elizabeth cook-lynn
70. Dances with wolves – effectively used with subtitles the language of my real life – Indians which in the yearbefoer the Columbus quincentenial – remember who the country once belonged to –
71. Pop culture – as an instrument – of social change and intellectual puersuit is – dangerous today –
72. Helen hunt Jackson – soap opera novel romana – published a century of dishonor and second that Indian studies as an academic discipline can survive subordination to pop America.
73. 60s – mission was made clear and radicalization began for the discipline – worked for and bad against – people became directors of programs -
74. Radicalization of the academic conscoiousness – worked for us and against us – shed blood for back in the sixties – assult on the narrowminded notion that there isn’t fixed authorial and western values. Homilies
75. White mans imagination – movies – poetry and – Indians were valid from their idea – Kevin Costner –
76. Popular imagination of America and intellectual inquiery – is not because it says something real about history but b/c it says something significant about the pop culture concerning iidnians in this country -. Stillwants simple solutions – dancese with wolves dispensing the congenial implication that americna colonialist is capabe of expressios of benevolent humanism.
77. American colonialists – benevolent humanism – congenial implication
78. Federal policies – 1860s shot up AI wars bathing the northern plains with blood. Fed policies of extermination and are still in place today.
79. Genocidal policies – the making and breaking of treaties with Indians thefts of land and assassinations of native leadership.
80. Social change – murderer and murdered. Thief and victim. In Indian life this is rarely addressed and never transcended – indefensible resultant effects of the oppressors – paternalism and poverty of modern American Indian life.
81. Black hills land case – Lakota been in case since 20s – politicians in south Dakota want to take political solution even though the supreme court in 80s affirmed that the theaft by federal gov was rankl. – land reform – economic needs –
82. Economic interests – movies must make money – pop culture is ingeniune – throw backs.
83. Parameters- cultural and historical - - integreity – sober understanding of regulating and defending the parameters of that discipline paratemrs which may be either tribally specific or global or panindian.
a. Cultural – claim upon spiritual and philosophical notions embedded in language and literature and religion and mythology –
b. Historical – legal status of Indian nationhood and inidna citizenship – legal rights and political condition are dependednt.
84. Functions of the parameters – defining an alternative regime of intellectual thought, distinguishing Indian studies from anthropology and history and the social sciences and related disciplines. – regulat ethe development of the discipline in institutional settings by brining about a number of models.
a. Curriculum development – models seem to be geared toward urbanization .
b. Defensive function – traibablly described model – best – obliged to serve the traibla nation rather than the US. Own board of Indian trustees.
85. Indian studies professors – “on what terms” are we willing to go on the work in the American university systems tat have emerged from the sixties radicalization of academia.
86. Responsibility – what is my resonsibilty to my ancestors and to my grandchildren –
87. Career vs accountability – advance career by just doing slave work for universities instead of doing intellectual work for their tribes. – steele d asuza rodrigguez –
88. Token status – isolation in which we do our work hours of work and serveing on committee on campus . give lectures more than other faculty members. No time. Ned to focus,
89. Sovereign right – defend it- charge of conferring citizenship upon your own people. Possess what tribes posses. Indiansmust be in charge of intellectual development – tribally specific.
90. Western values –
91. Vine deloria – the most important question - is what I am learning useful to Indians. – is what I am teaching and writing and researching of value to the continuation of the Indian nations of America?
92. ----------a marginal voice ------ Robert allen warrior
93. Vine deloria jr – lambasted them – custer died for your sins – 1969 –
94. Arnold krupat – something different – native americanist – removed from intellectual ghetto of anthro and sociology – theoretical issues – sympathetic to naïve people –
95. American Indian literature – contemporary discussion about multiculturalism and ‘the canon’. Educational institutions in the us teach ore tan just te works of white males -
96. Authentic native American – oral stories
97. Colonization – the voice in the margin – henry Louis gates – non white critics of colonization – and intellectural imperialism – great resources for us to develop self determined American Indian reponses to the multiculturalism debate.
a. Adapting to new situations and new challenges .
98. National literature and assimilation - -sovereignity – separate political status of native nations –
99. Contemporary inidna struggles – offer a conceptual paradigm – image a vison not a polical program –
100. Orientalism – Edward Said – devastiating critique of how anthro and other apolical and pure academic research in colonial asia and other places go hand in hand with colonizers and colonized subjects and polical oppression. NEED polical sodiarity and commitment to sovereignty – not liberal sympathy
101. Jack D forbes – intellectual self determination and sovereigniy –
102. Okute – teton Sioux – animals and plants are taught by wakan tanka what they do. – teaches birds and andmials to do what they do. Each animal has to be independent – rely on itself.
103. Black hawk – leader of osakiwuk – what is right and wrong – path we believe is right – great and good spirit – we could hav done as the whites – he could have changed out opninoins – and we would have acted like the whites – white who pretend to know the right path
104. Wisdom – no grop of people anywhere has so universally valued wisdom – Indians were philiosopher people – seekers or wisdom – both for individuals and for collectivies – illectual self determination and sovereignty
105. Self determination - - all have the rights to save us from imperialism totalitarianism and materialistic destruction of our mother earth.
106. Native controlled colleges – key objectives liberation of the indigenous intelligentsia from constraints composed by dominance of European and euro north American colonial systems.
107. American Indian uni – providing special training for future tribal leaders – lack of Indian historicans – allowed white to get int here with their point of view-
108. Cultural intellectual center- Indian community is read for a renaissance – rebirth needs culture and intellectual center – breathe new life
109. Liberation – spoke strong about self dtermination and decolonization – intellectual self determination as a polical and economic liberation .
110. Dq university – empower and strengthen traditionalist intelligentsia already existing at the grass roots level - train young people to return to communities and lead the intellectual and creative struggle for liberation.
111. Elders – serve on board – series of publications sketched out plans for intellectual decolonization – dissemination of ideas through all forms of media .
112. Native intelligentsia – not controlled by powerful individuals and institutions lie the Smithsonian
113. Native faculty – interation between communites and intellectuals – cannot function effectively if it is imprisioned .
114. Native journals – gatherings, wicazo sa review – indigenous direction – emerging group of native dramatists –
115. Autonomy – greek – self and law – existing independly of no gov.
116. Robert allen warrior – intellectual sovereignty – struggle of sovereignty – anything it is a way oflife.
a. State we achieve through steady struggle for self determination – move toward self governance and self direction
117. Lenape Delaware confederacy – dispersal of polical authority – land use rights andother areas – friends of each other – bore kin relationships with man other peoles – Shawnee and mahikani and the Nanticoke. – grandfathers – supremacy
118. Supremacy – all reations were essentially consensual and – possessed fundamental rights of self determination –
119. Tribal sovernignty – us is supreme over natives.. dumb ideas. – supremacy is hierarchical – soveriengy sites on top ofindigenous soverigny and tribal members are down t the bottom. ------ doubled edged sword – used against and for.. native common law – self determination – intellectual sovereignty – suprme over our own lives
120. Northridge – proposal was politically premature - - borders of the us could never serve as intellectual borders for new field of study –
121. Border crossing – Canadian border – movement of tribes –
122. International boundaries – less significant – Mexicans moving around – other tribes.. etc.
123. CG turners – studying teeth – groupings of polical implications – dental from china – sinodonty – we areamerican sinodonts – Eskimo – na dene and amerind.
124. Joseph Greenberg – used a unique methodology to lump some two hungdred separate American lang families together – three giant gropings –
125. Americology – anative American studies – train new gen of these people – familary with metodoligcal tools and stuff. Fokloric and ethnographpic material. – know the Muskogee lang and know stuff – cultivate a respect for native American values – traditions. Etc.
126. Native studies – oblication to expand subject area to embrace coursework focused on languages archaeology and art.. – evolve int comprehensive discipline whose responsibility embraces all aspects of indigenous life and history
127. European sources – must challenge them – textual critisim – challenge jon smith and his accounts – misinformation.
128. Ethnographic works – challenge them – anthropologiest synthesized information from several informants and anon and undiscussed. Evaluate relabilty – and abilty to tell stories from one persont o another and seeing the differences
129. Indigegnous languages - - much harm is being done – by non native linguists – record the exact speech of particular community for scientific analysis - - animate and inanimate categroesi – kumbako – leaf – inanimate – hittuk – tree – is animate category.
130. -------------- - Africa and Eurasia –
131. 1993 – indig people mainted 12 of the land on this planet –
132. Africa – no demographic gov – nomadic –
133. Tanzania – peoples alnds are being expropriated by commercial wheat production. Forced off at gunpoint without compensation. Removal of the baribaigs – 30,000 of them – considered as primitive people- ‘aid’ schemes by develop countries such as Canada.
134. Deforestation – highest deforestation in Africa. 16 percent were destroyed between 80-90s. 40 percent of original size –
135. Commercial charcoal production and paching – game reserves – shooting animals.
136. Civil war – European retain control. – angola – 100000 dead and 750k refugees – victory left with bitter ethnic rivalries.
137. Soviets and Americans – arming of tribal peoples in Ethiopia and Somalia – catastrophic famines -. Arming bushmen ofnamibia.
138. Russian federacy – sthe largest stil. Isolated.
139. India – hundreds tribal groups – naga people getting killed. – narmada valley.
140. Bangledesh - war against indig people in the hittagon hill tracts ..100k soldiers messed with jumma villagers – fled to india as refugees.
141. Tibet genocidal – Tibet will remain Chinese empire – banning of Tibetan culture and importation of millions of Chinese settlers.
142. Burma – 50 yr war aginst arakan Karen, chin and other indigenous peoples –
143. United nations – lack of active support – continuing struggle by nation states to defend their arbitrary boundaries.
144. Indig living in their boundaries viewed as obstacle – land is imporatnat – greater economic needs tof thenation state as a whole. – holding everything up. Cilvilzation –
145. --- moringe parkipuny –
a. Kipoc Africa – masai and bemba together – 1993- indig year
b. Masai - split between germany and Britain – colonial states assigned to Tanganyika.
146. – gaer –
a. Russia small people – thirty fourt In European and asian parts of Russia - . 440,000k people 17 percent of are living nomadic lyricstyle.
b. Disappearing – biological resources –
c. National hard currency fund. – resources of the terrirotires inhabited by indig people formed – 30 percent of all hard currency earnings. Nickel, timber, cellulose. Etc.
d. International league of smaller peoples. – 1992- principles of sovereign equality of all its members – settlement of emerging conflicts only by peaceful means and communities rendering collective assistance to each other.
i. Studying economic political and cultural problems under the rpresent and often obscene conditions
e. United nations charter – the int leage is reviewed by the chater – small groups welcomed.
f. 1993 – yearof the world –
g. Legistlative acts defining a specific term for eual status of smaller peoples.
h. Governmental decisions –
i. Civilized development – common work and striving.
147. Giichi nomura –
a. Ainu – formed a society – culture in hokaido, te kuril islands – and southern Sakhalin from time immemorial. . up til 1986 a mere six years ago. The gov of japan denied even our very existence inits proud claim tht japan alone in the world is a mono-ethnic nation.
b. Ainu people - gov eyes people not to be admitted – not a ghost –
c. Development project – Hokkaido kaitaku – large scale colonization –forced to become part of Japanese nation – traditional territory was carved up. Forced relocations.
d. Assimiliation – forced moving – ainu lang was banned and our traditional culture was denied. Ainu peole. Became object of oppression, exploitation
e. December 10 - human rights day – f45 yrs sicne the adoption of the universal declaration of human rights. Rightly commemorated by allmankind.
f. Ainu request that the un move rapily to set int standards that guarantee rights of indig peoles against various forms of ethnocide.
g. Interrelated community – global community – partnership –
148. ----- seurujarvi – kari
149. Nordic saaml – council – represents sammi nation of finland, Norway, Sweden, and Russia –
150. Ilo convention No 169 – ratified by several countires – Norway –
151. Labor conference of 1989 – with indig people and tribes –
152. Un – addressing the situation – commission on human rights. Subcommission the treaty implementation bodies and various seminars and workshops –
153. UN working group on indig populations – leadership p of madam Erica daes. Drafting declaration on the rights and freedoms of indig peoples. Keep it open and accessible should be uninterrupted until meaningful and substantive standards emerge.
154. Links are reflected in the work of groups
155. ---south America –
156. Central and south amercia – 500 indian nationalities – hundreds of native languages – 40 mil indig people live in this area.
157. Caribbean – pizzaro who conquered the inca pempire – invasion of explorers and conquistadors.
158. Guatemala 81 and 83- pacification – programs of the Guatemalan dictator gen efrain rios montee almost 1 mil mayas were forcilbly displaced many of them into model villages.
159. 20,000 indians werekileld and 250 destroyed – model villages – were concentration camps.
160. Nicaragua – miskito Indians - ignored under repressive regime of general anastasio Somoza debayle. Sandanistas and the US.
161. Missionaries – toba maskoy people barren chao desert –
162. Rebels – 9 million – cheap labor and beaten .
163. Moiset rebels – the shining path – unmatched mercilies and killing sprees.
164. CONAIE – confederation of edcuador – polical forces
165. --------------Marcial aries Garcia –
166. Continental coordinating – problems of our people should be accorded with the same prominaence as other problems being considered. Solution to problems –
167. Convention no 169 – of the ilo – recognizes some of our ancestral rights –
168. Commission on human rights – intellectual property rights of indig people
169. Voluntary fund – significant donations – implemented assure direct participation in the management of these projectsby indig peoples and orgs.
170. Working group – on indig opopuations – after 10 years – not been approved. Part due to interests that colonial gov have in ignoring the indig peoples.
171. -----Uliani – noeli pocaterra –
172. Wayuu indig person from Venezuela – national Indian council of Venezuela
173. Western culture – family of mankind and holds family as a basic unit. Indig people are not included.
174. Western science – cannot ignore mother earth and the cosmos - - to preserve the future and has become the best instrument to destroy the future – through advances in tech – use of resources and property. Must challenge western science.
175. ILO – 169 – ratified by all latin America – first quarter of 1993- willingness to listen to the indig peoples by adopting the only instrument which is available to us so fra under int law. Determine priorities in accordance with the needs of every region of the country and inaccordance with every people or nation.
176. Progressive expropriation – of their lands and territories. Sustain the basic balce of life.
177. ----davi yanomami – brazil
178. 1991- received by secretary general Javier perez de vuellar. Explained agression of m people were suffering. –wrote to help.
179. 1992 – earth summit held in rio de janeiro – ratification also by pres color of ouor 96k reserve. – create single reserve for them.
180. FUNAI – Brazilian gov Indian agency – with fed police.
181. Garimpeiros – invaders gold miners. Invading lands and stuff. Ferryboats brinigng them over the calaburi river. And flying over the lands.
182. Malana –
183. 1987-91 – malaria thing. Promised to help no help.
184. Itamar franco - - preseitent that didn’t help with the malaria
185. Secretary general – Boutros ghali- ask to send help – un guy. To investigate the garimpeiros.
186. Int labor org – help poele –
187. Omam – creator of the yanomami – creator of the shaboris – whoare shamans. – stop the destruction.. stop taking minsterals from under the ground. Stop building raods through forests.
188. Shaboris – deliver miessage – true knowledge.
189. --- hughs –
190. Bryce cooper – NIWA – national institute of water and atmosphereic research - traditional uses of the river – and its margins for – have been damaged by the activities of the ueropean settlers –
191. Collective ownership - - privately owned is anathema to indig peoples - must share – do not grab more than your fair share –
192. Ayllu – everyone had access to the land. –
193. Kumri – allowd them to manage tivation called kumri – manage communally held land in the ecologically sound way -. – british banned it.
194. Colonial – European powers took advantage of the fact that most ethnic groups did not own the land so they took it calling it vacant - still reqeuesting ownership of their own land
195. Spiritual realms – entwined – everything is connected – more grounded than others.
196. Cosmetic unit – embraces all humans – must live in harmony – connects everyone –
197. Shamans – meditate between peole and spirit beings – must show repect. Rules about hunting and eating.
198. Sacred custodians –
199. Siberian reindeer herders – must not whistle sing or makenoise when you are out in the wild – might offend the spirits who own it.
200. Damara herders – nambia – silent when getting wild foods – to respect daead.
201. Naga - supreme god and earth spirits which have different functions. Goddess of corps and wealth.
202. Maori- te kore or total darkness – no life just potential.
203. Earth mother – paptuanuku – and the sky father – ranginui- locked in the embrce that shut out all light and prevented anything growing.
204. The son – tane mahuta –god of the forests got between earth and sky - - made first human being from clay mother – slept with her andmde a daughter – hinetitama –
205. Eco-rituals – women sacred custodians of wearth – give new life –
206. Urbanized indig peoples – link to land. Live in towns and cities –
207. Land loss – many problem – environment and identiy –
208. National society – women are vunerable – soliders police. Etc.
209. Community leaders losing land –
210. Exploitation of land – some lived by only owning land of no value – butnow people are spreading –
211. Tanzania – wheat program – Canada getting acrews for wheat farms – in 1970. Took over 12 percent of hanang district where thebarabaig live.
212. Muhajega – ninedifferent grass and herbs. The baragaig lost all their muhajega.
213. 1994- Tanzanian gov violations of human rights in thwe wheat farming areas. Not made public –
214. Bufferzones – rich resources coveted by trnasnatioal corps and war isbeing fought over the rights to those resources –
215. New wrld order – impacting karamojong pastoralists. Repressive against them. Need guns to ward off cattle raiders.
216. Eco-tourism –
217. 2002 – elders performed ritual curse against soliders beating torturing looting. Etc.
218. Negative portrayal in culture – quality journalism – racism – jokes.
219. Movies use them as exotic tsuff –
220. Slaver y – trafficking bonded forced labor – due to poverty – vulnerable to be enslaved.
221. Southern sudan – women and children enslaved – dinka ethnic group –
222.]]> Anthropology]]> Sat, 01 Mar 2008 19:00:30 -0500 http://www.readourpapers.com/anthropology/cultural-relativism.html Our ethical norms change over time, back 100 years ago, things were very much different, entculturation takes place and our norms change, as does our culture along with it. As some societies change, new norms are created, as if there are overpopulated ares, possible sacrifices of human beings may come normal in that culture.
Expanding our knowledge of cultures has its limits, as some would call murder, other cultures may call sacrifices. In my case, that is where I’d call the line. Life is a sacred thing, taking it should never be performed. From my background and culture, I don’t see and have not opened my eyes to sacrificing lives to causes a just thing to do. Surely, if the sacrificed was fully aware of what was going to happen, then it would be different, but in cases as some of the Aztecs, sacrificing people’s lives, even people who were un-voluntarily sacrificed, would be far past that imaginary line in my mind. Because there is no standard right and wrong, we rely on our cultures to determine those standards, cultural relativism demonstrates that truth is relative to each specific culture. We all must find our imaginary line in our mind, of where the societies should have limits, and where we should respect the society; even if we should always respect their practices.

Probe ministries
http://www.probe.org/content/view/117/77/]]> Anthropology]]> Mon, 26 Feb 2007 23:29:22 -0500 http://www.readourpapers.com/anthropology/working-woman-the-global-effects-on-the-female-workforce-and-their-families.html The chain of negative effects women in the workforce must face often begins before they even become mothers, with the problem of maternity leave, or, more often than not, lack thereof, being a major issue. Even in a First World such as the United States women must deal with the tough decision of choosing between unpaid leave and leaving their newborn. Care options range from depending on relatives, daycare centers or at-home nannies, which many mothers are unable to avoid due to financial need. As Lise Vogel states, “Having a baby is an expensive undertaking.” This is supported by doctor’s and hospital bills that add up to the thousands of dollars, not to mention the costs of all of the necessities that a baby requires. Especially for first time mothers, the expenses that a baby brings with it are often too much for a husband’s paycheck alone to handle, if there even is a father or husband around. The ever increasing cost of living is one major reason why the percentage of working mothers has gone up so drastically in the past century or so. There are “few benefits available to assist women workers who bear children... despite an entrenched public ideology venerating motherhood and family” and there remains a “continuing absence of even the most basic components of an adequate maternity policy: health insurance, a job- and benefit-protected leave, and some income replacement during the leave” (Vogel 1993:30). Without assistance, mothers are unable to remain at home with their children during the first stages of life, when first words are spoken and first steps are taken. This lack of aid is even more present with regards to immigrants or women of color, with even the often minimal benefits provided to Americans or Europeans almost completely denied them. In the case of domestic workers, the very same women who sacrifice so much to provide care for their employer and their employer’s families are often let go or punished for becoming pregnant or wanting to bring a child to their work environment. As Andall writes, “the ideal servant is unmarried, even asexual…a historical incompatibility between live-in domestic work and family life” (Andall 2000:195-196).
With the majority of women unable to afford being away from work any longer than their health requires, they must leave their infant in someone else’s care to ensure that their financial stability does not falter. The reality that even in the United States maternity leaves are “typically unpaid” (Vogel 1993:32) in turn creates a heavy dependency on domestic workers, whether for housekeeping duties, childcare, or both. Most frequently these workers have immigrated, leaving their own families behind in exchange for higher wages and the hope of a better life. This enables the mothers who cannot afford to stay at home with their children to go to work with slightly less worry. The vast majority of domestic workers migrated alone, and “even in those instances where they already had their own families they were usually compelled to leave them behind in the country of origin” (Andall 2000:125). Most frequently their journey is due to financial need, an “economic migration, made possible by the existing demand within the receiving country” (Andall 2000:125). It is an unfortunate cycle that as more women in industrialized countries leave their homes to get wage-paying jobs, the demand for domestic workers becomes higher and higher, free time becoming a thing of the past to the working women of the world. As Andall indicates,
It almost seems as though a woman’s emancipation can only occur by off-loading a part of her own domestic duties onto another woman. It is not by chance that the number of domestic workers has risen noticeably over the last few years. The reasons behind this growth in the domestic work sector can be…attributed to the organizational needs of a working woman and the fact that she cannot…reconcile her double presence so she prefers or is forced to delegate part of the domestic labour to another woman if she wants to have a minimum amount of space for herself. (Andall 2000:253).
Rather than handling the “second shift” responsibilities of housekeeping and childrearing alone or sharing with a husband, the working women often find the solution in simply paying someone else to manage it.
While this appears to be a simple and golden opportunity for the migrant workers, the sacrifice they make in leaving their homes and their families is very high. It is true that most, if not all, of their already deteriorating situations back home are in fact reversed with the increasing demand for them in the field of domestic work, but at what cost? While some cite their previously unimaginable “degree of independence” and “liberation” (Hochschild 2002:1,3), this independence is achieved through the separation of mother from family in almost every case, often for months or even years at a time. In addition, their employers often know nothing of their personal lives or children that were left behind, and frequently overlook such sacrifices, not realizing that the love their own child receives from the hired help was in reality love that was being denied another. This love, along with numerous other benefits that employing migrant women provides, causes other childcare options to pale in comparison. Day care centers, as one example, are often much less reliable, more demanding, and much more expensive than a live-in childcare provider, but unfortunately many of these live-in care providers are exploited because of these very reasons. The main complaints of the domestic workers in interviews “concerned the long hours, abuse by employers, lack of free time and lack of privacy…structural problems endemic to the live-in work relationship” (Andall 2000:129). It is a sad truth that migrant women are “subject to greater exploitation because of their migrant status, which meant that their presence was precarious” (Andall 2000:129), combined with the reality that the money to be made in domestic work is still far greater than anything they could hope to achieve in their home country, gives an employee the upper hand.
Part of the problem fueling such negative effects are realities such as “racial ‘discounting’” and the “indoor nature of so much of the new migrant’s work” (Hochnschild 2002:3). The presence of these workers and the exploitation that they endure is often ignored or forgotten by the public simply because the nature of their work is so private, they are out of sight a vast majority of the time,. It is also true that these hired women are often so good at their jobs of housekeeping and childrearing that their employers often neglect or fail to remember that the workers do in fact have personal lives. The most common complaints of domestic workers is that it is impossible to have any time to themselves, whether to meet with friends or more importantly go home to see their children, and the strenuous nature of the work is frequently mentioned as well, being on-call at any hour of the day is job that not many could tolerate. Oddly enough solace is found in the most peculiar place: the children left in the workers’ care. Strong bonds frequently develop between the children and their domestic caregivers, in one instance so much so that the child’s first word was her caretaker’s name (Hochnschild 2002:16). A common reality is that the care and love that would have been given to the migrant women’s own children is in fact shifted to the children that they look after day in and day out. What many of the parents fail to see is that this nurturing and caring is not simply a part of the worker’s nature or culture, but a sign of the effect that the “heartbreaking absence of their own children” (Hochnschild 2002:4) is having on them. Being away from the children that should be receiving their love, they instead shift their attentions to the children that are available, that they do see.
This movement of love from less developed countries to more modern ones has been referred to as a “global heart transplant,” in which love and care is essentially extracted from Third World countries, much like coal or oil. The First World is so deprived of such things, with the scramble for “bigger and better” often overshadowing something so basic to human nature, that is has taken to importing it in the form of these migrant women. This transfer of care has not only impacted these mothers who leave their children behind in search of work but very heavily on the children as well. The effects that an absent mother can have on a child is hotly debated but nonetheless a reality. Studies on children of varying ages present drastically different results, some arguing that separation can strengthen the bond that a young child has with its mother while others claim that an insecure attachment will result. “Maternal employment” during the most critical “first year of life” most often affects “the child’s social and behavioral development” (Wisensale 2001:92), which can lead to more severe damage later in life. As the age of the child increases more often than not so does the level in which they are affected, psychological and behavioral problems such as hostility towards other children, unhealthy relationships with adults, depression, and in extreme cases, attempted suicide (Hochnschild 2002:22). Despite all of this, women continue leaving their homes in the thousands, hoping that the money they receive will help to make the efforts worthwhile.
Despite all of the side effects and harm that working women seem to cause and endure, it is highly unlikely that their numbers will begin declining soon. The number of women in the workforce is expected to continue its steady incline, with the dramatic rise since the 1970s setting the stage for the future. Increases in the costs of living mirror the need for women to leave their homes in exchange for a paycheck, no matter the distance or damage they must endure. The unfortunate impact of this trend on their families and their children is a tragedy, but a tragedy that is dealt with in order to provide food and shelter for the very same family. As pressure placed on women in First World countries to compete with their male counterparts in the workplace or the home, the steady demand for domestic workers has provided many Third World women with opportunities to achieve a better life for themselves and the ones they love, but at a price. Despite the dramatic differences in the lives that these women lead, between them is shared desire to improve the lives of their families and themselves. The sacrifices they make are costly ones, but are done to carry or send a paycheck home. In the case of women who leave their children in order to do so, many suffer as their children do because of lengthy separations, but many are realizing the dream of having more than just enough to get by as well. The absence of a mother is often very damaging on the children that are left in alternate care, with psychological and behavioral problems to show for it. Regardless of the many obstacles and side effects, from the difficulties of maternity leave, being forced to leave children behind, to emotional damage that ensues, the calling of a mother to provide for her family outweighs all else. The common maternal cause unites mothers from different worlds as they take jobs for the betterment of their family, regardless of their personal sacrifices.











REFERENCES


Andall, Jacueline. 2000. Gender Migration and Domestic Service. Burlington:
Ashgate Publishing Co.

Hochnschild, Arlie. 2002. “Introduction” and “Love and Gold” in Barbara Ehrenreich,
and Arlie Hochnschild Eds. Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy. New York: Henry Holt.
The Pennsylvania State University. 1997. Alan Booth, Ann C. Crouter, Nancy Landale
Eds. Immigration and the Family: Research and Policy on U.S. Immigrants.
Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers
Vogel, Lise. 1993. Mothers on the Job: Maternal Policy in the US Workplace. New
Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
Wisensale, Steven K.. 2001. Family Leave Policy: The Political Economy of Work and
Family in America. New York: M.E. Sharpe New York.]]> Anthropology]]> Wed, 11 Oct 2006 01:39:04 -0400 http://www.readourpapers.com/anthropology/a-quiet-place-to-fill-your-head.html The first thing that one notices upon walking through the library’s double doors is the peaceful atmosphere. It is no wonder so many students choose this as their place of study, it is quiet and without too many distractions. There are also plenty of helpful members of the staff who are eager to answer any questions a student may have: where to find a computer to use, where the reference section is located, and how to obtain a book or research material that has been placed on reserve. As I set out for my first field observation session, I tried to keep in mind the information that I had obtained regarding conducting research using this method- that of the participant observer. I decided that I would be simply observing rather than participating, although I looked rather inconspicuous as I sat and wrote my field notes, seeing that most other students were acting similarly as they did whatever homework or studying they had set out to accomplish. While the majority of students sat at the large wooden desks with their materials spread out before them, some students preferred sitting outside in the courtyard, while others took advantage of other nooks and crannies that the library has to offer. Depending on the time of day, the number of students in the library fluctuates, as I noticed when I returned later in the afternoon to conduct the second half-hour observing session.
From my surveillance, I determined that there is a noticeably larger number of students in the library as the day wears on, leading one to assume that the number of students increases because less classes are offered later in the day, resulting in more opportunities for the student to travel to the library once their classes are done for the day and do any homework, research, or studying that they may have. More students present in the library have the consequence of a higher ratio of students per table. This unalterable side affect may be less desirable for some students, whose studying time could thereby be cut short since they are unable to have their own table. An increased number of students also results in a higher level of noise, another undesired side affect that may interfere with a student’s studying. People are more social at this hour as well, with friends or classmates meeting up to study together, as opposed to the quieter morning crowd, composed mainly of single students pouring over books and binders. One would presume that the morning studiers are there for an upcoming test or exam, possibly doing some last-minute cramming until the moment right before class, while at night there is a more leisurely atmosphere, studying without the sense of urgency that the morning contains.
One of the most striking things about the library is just how quiet it really is. While any other place with such a large number of students is typically noisy and rowdy, the library possesses an overwhelming sense of serenity, providing a study environment that may almost be too quiet for some students. After growing accustomed to having a roommate or roommates coupled with the usual noises that never seem to cease, moving to the library is a shocking change of pace. I noted this in my observations, more that students have the overwhelming respect and politeness to keep the noise level incredibly low, even when studying in a group or meeting up with friends. There are few, if any, places elsewhere on campus where one is able to encounter such regard on behalf of one student for the surrounding students, and while it is true that the library has a noise policy, most students go above and beyond adhering to said standards, cooperating with the general public to provide a peaceful academic atmosphere. Even those who have never been to a library know, perhaps by instinct, that you are not to distract or interrupt other students, and this is exactly what happens.
There were several perceptible trends among the students present in the library, such as age, ethnicity, and gender, but this was also dependent on the time of day. In the morning, for example, a larger number of students tended to be female, this possibly reflecting that women are more likely to wake up earlier to study, or perhaps that they take more classes that begin in the afternoon and have the morning free, or simply that they would rather study in a library than elsewhere. Another pattern was that a majority of the students present were younger, i.e. first and/or second years, correlating with living patterns, and motivation. Juniors and Seniors presumably live off-campus, and therefore would study and do homework in the privacy of their own apartments or homes, being that they have more personal space there than in a dormitory. My other explanation for this is that the younger students have more pressure on them, either from themselves or their parents, to succeed in school and make a good first impression. As far as ethnicity goes, without there being any racial bias behind this statement, there were a larger number of Asian students that I observed than say, Caucasian or African American. I mention this only due to the fact that it reflects the overall population of the university, not to support the unnecessary stereotype that “Asian students are nerds” or that they are innately smarter than any other student.
As for the afternoon to nighttime crowd, other than the increase in socialization and number of students, there were more males present than had been in the morning. This relates back to the possibility of them sleeping in later than females, or studying less in the morning than later in the day, (or the ever-present possibility of simply studying less in general). The one flaw with participant observation is noticeably apparent in this case, the fact being that without speaking to any of the students it is impossible to put theory to fact. There are many variables that are only determined after conducting interviews with the observed, variables left to speculation and hypothesizing. Reasons for being in the library, for example, I can only guess at, it is not always completely obvious from a student’s actions or behavior, it is nearly impossible to tell if they are writing an essay or writing a letter, for example, simply by watching them. Something as detailed as this would reasonably only be found out by asking a student, often an obstacle when conducting fieldwork.
This is one of the precautions that books on the various methods of anthropological research present, the fact that observation is left entirely to the interpretation of the anthropologist. Being that my research was conducted in such a manner, observing students in a library, there is much more that is left up to my opinion than say, watching a baseball game and having to come to the conclusion of how the game works, which is a more objective interaction. There is a delicate balance between not wishing to disturb people in their “habitat,” whether it is a jungle village or a library desk, and achieving an accurate interpretation of their behavior. Actually participating while observing is another difficult decision to make, while you may get a more correct view of the people or their rituals/attitudes/etc, by actually participating it is possible that you are actually altering a person’s behavior or the way things would normally be carried out. Another thing to note is that many anthropologists barter with their subjects, which leads one to the possibility that the people being studied falsify information or behavior, to keep the newfound income provided by the anthropologist coming in.
I cannot decide whether or not any of my personal biases were reflected in this research, although I was pleased to see more female than male students in the library, this was an aspect of the observations that was not left up to me to interpret, but merely to witness and comment on. It is possible that there were more male students elsewhere in the library during the morning hours that I was unable to witness due to the location I chose for observation, and it is also possible that some of the female students were in fact not studying at all, either socializing or doing work other than something school-related. The library also obviously does not reflect the number of students who choose other places to study, so the only conclusion to draw from this observation is that there a larger number of female students go to the library in the morning. The late afternoon crowd was slightly different in comparison, with gender being the most obvious difference, which many males will be proud to note that they too use the library in significant numbers. Again, several possible explanations exist for this trend, be it that more female students are in class at this hour, they already did their studying in the morning, or that males are more inclined to study later in the day.
Participant observation is defined as “a fundamental method of research used in cultural anthropology. It involves a researcher, or researchers, living within a given culture for an extended period of time, to take part in its daily life in all its richness and diversity. The anthropologist in such an approach tries to experience a culture ‘from within,’ as a person native to that culture might do” (Donohue-Lynch). My biggest complaint about the participant observation method is that it leaves so much up to the anthropologist to interpret. And while this is not always detrimental to the research as the anthropologist can be led to correct conclusions about their subject that they may not have realized otherwise, there are many biases that can arise on behalf of the anthropologist in this manner. In my case, there were many things that I had to conclude for myself, and that was only from observing students in a library, an environment used for activities that may seem pretty straightforward. Without interrupting students to question them on their behavior or actions, it is left to me to decide if a conversation is academic or simply social, or if a student is studying for an upcoming exam or midterm in a class when in reality they are not studying at all but doing nothing more than checking their e-mail. These are all very small matters in the grand scheme of things, thought matters nonetheless. My analysis would be rather off if in fact all of the students that I presumed to be studying were in reality only using the library for social means, while this may seem somewhat less likely due to the fact that the library has rules about the noise level, it is still entirely possible. Overall, observation gives the anthropologist a chance to put their knowledge to work, with the only precaution being that all biases or prior knowledge of a subject or topic be left behind when going forward to conduct research using this method.




Works Cited
ASHWORTH, P. 1979. Social Interaction and Consciousness John Wiley and Sons,
Ltd.

BERNARD, Russell H. (ed.) 2000. Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology.
Oxford: AltaMira Press.

DONOHUE-LYNCH, Brian. “Participant Observation” November 28, 2005.
< http://www.qvctc.commnet.edu/brian/partob.html>

ENNEW, J. Examining the Facts of Fieldwork. “Consideration of Method and Data”
“Critique of Anthropology” 1976.]]> Anthropology]]> Wed, 11 Oct 2006 01:37:07 -0400 http://www.readourpapers.com/anthropology/margaret-mead-to-cherish-the-life-of-the-world.html The four websites used to research Margaret Mead are the American Museum of Natural History (www.amnh.org), at which Margaret held various positions, including assistant curator, associated curator, and curator of ethnology. This site was found by searching at google.com for 'Margaret Mead,' and possesses a relatively thorough account of her life and her anthropological background. One thing in particular that one notices about the information on this website is that the very brief mention of the research she conducted leaves one with many questions as to what she actually did in the field. Her first anthropological study was done on the people of Samoa, but this articles fails to mention anything about this expedition other than the book that she wrote as a result of it- Coming of Age in Samoa. It is more a mere mentioning of the general areas in which she studied, with a severe lack of detail as to the people she worked with and what she did with her research. I was interested to read that she had been a 'deeply committed activist,' and 'often testified on social issues before the United States Congress,' this being information that I did not see on any of the other three websites. As for the site's appearance, one thing that made this site stand out from others was that it has several links of actual video footage of Margaret Mead, which was interesting, but two photographs were the only graphics or visuals posted. While the information presented is credible (being that is it the American Museum of Natural History), easy-to-read, and easy to find, overall it is lacking in many respects, and one is better off using other sources if Margaret Mead is the subject of his or her research.
Another site that I used is the University of Minnesota at Mankato's directory of anthropology biographies. This link is seen on literally every anthropology site one can find, which greatly strengthens its credibility. This site in particular is the easiest to navigate and find useful information on, not only for the anthropologist that I chose but any other anthropologist one may wish to research. The nicest feature was the set of links at the top of the page, one for each letter of the alphabet, corresponding to the last names of hundreds of anthropologists. This site also had a lot more detail in regard to Margaret's youth, schooling (particularly in regard to her beginnings in anthropology), the cultures that she studied, and her three marriages. Several facts that I found interesting that the first site failed to mention: she was the first baby to be born at the West Park Hospital after it opened in 1901, being born in a hospital was unusual for this time as most babies were born in the home, her family moved around 'a great deal' (www.mnsu.com), and that Margaret had numerous miscarriages when she and her third husband tried to conceive a child. This site also linked information about several influential people in Mead's life, including Franz Boas, Ruth Benedict, and her final husband Gregory Bateson. Another thing the site did effectively was to include the titles of numerous of Mead's books at the bottom, something that the others failed to do. The one complaint I have however, is that there is very little information about the later years of Mead's life (which was the same with the first site), with merely the abrupt ending 'Margaret died in 1978 having lived a very enriched life' ( www.mnsu.edu). Much like the first web site, there is a severe lack of graphics, but since this site was put together by a university, it is not as surprising as if it were a professional's work.
The next two sites contain much less information than the first two about Mead specifically, though they have numerous references at the bottom that prove useful. The first site is presented by the National Women's Hall of Fame, and the other by FactMonster.com, an online encyclopedia found through a link on an anthropology association's site. The Women's Hall of Fame site is the first that mentions Mead having difficulty in convincing her father to allow her to go to college, which is of significance as it is at the first university where she studies with Franz Boas and becomes intrigued by the field of anthropology. This site also revealed the Mead was one of few anthropologists who studied half a dozen tribes rather than spending a lifetime on one primitive tribe. The majority of the information is about her work, which was helpful seeing as the other sites tended to overlook this area, but the lack of visuals followed the trend set by the previous two sites. There is one picture of Mead's later years, though nothing of her in the field, of the people she studied, or of her youth. This one photograph is still more than Factmonster.com's site provided, with absolutely no visuals that are related to the topic. Both sites have a clean and simple layout, Factmonster.com using more color than the other three, also including an easy-to-use table of links for navigating to other topics. In summary, Factmonster.com possesses less weight than the other sites, being that it is merely an encyclopedic definition, but it did has useful dates that one could research elsewhere. In my opinion the Women's Hall of Fame site did a better job of presenting interesting facts and details that one may not have found elsewhere, while the Minnesota University's site did the best job overall of presenting Margaret's biography. It is the most detailed and has the longest list of references and information about Margaret's books, which would definitely prove useful if one were conducting research about Margaret and her work.
Conducting research on the internet for this topic proved to be more of a challenge than one would imagine, the main deterrent being that few Anthropology sites take the time to gather research and information about specific anthropologists themselves, and instead just link to an outside source. There are thousands of sites about Margaret Mead and her life, but many of them are simply encyclopedia blurbs with little to no depth about her career in anthropology, most frequently all one can learn is when and where she was born, studied, graduated, and worked. Oftentimes, the trustworthy Anthropology associations and organizations have nothing more than a link to a site such as wikipedia.org or factmonster.com, rather than having information presented on their websites, and this information is not exactly what one in an anthropology class would be looking for. Each of the four that were used for this paper were eventually found either directly from Google.com or by searching through anthropology websites that were found via Google.com. The requirement that sources be limited to 'web sites that are directly relevant to anthropology' proved to be the most difficult to fulfill, seeing as even when anthropology web sites had information, or at least had a link to a site that did contain information, it was often sites unrelated to anthropology that provided more in-depth information about Margaret Mead's life and her life's work.


Bibliography

American Museum of Natural History. 'Margaret Mead' 14 Oct. 2005
argaret_Mead/mead.html>

Celebration of Women Anthropologists. 'Margaret Mead' 13 Oct 2005


University of Minnesota at Mankato's directory of anthropological biographies.
'Margaret Mead' 13 Oct 2005


"Margaret Mead." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia © 1994, 2000-2005, on Fact

Monster. © 2000'2005 Pearson Education, publishing as Fact Monster. 14 Oct. 2005

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